Collaboration within learning activities, i.e., solving tasks together, is one of the effective elements for designing learning activities. Collaboration is also seen as conducive to learning in spatial digital learning environments (SDLE), such as virtual reality environments. However, less is known about the detailed design of collaboration, such as learning requirements and specific interaction between learners. Thus, this evaluation study examines the groupwise exploration of SDLEs using the example of a 360°-based digital representation of a waterworks. The study combines ecological authenticity with a multidimensional assessment approach, examining motivation, emotions, cognitive load, and social presence in authentic group learning contexts. We used standardized instruments to collect data regarding motivation and emotion as learning requirements, social presence and cognitive load. A pre- and post-test supplemented the data, as did semi-structured interviews. T-tests show that learning in groups can be more stressful for learners but leads to a more positive affect overall (Collaborative Load–Motivation Trade-off Principle). Further, we found that pairs achieve better learning outcomes than triads. A side finding revealed that learning in face-to-face settings appears to be more effective than online learning. The study contributes to an informed instructional design of learning in SDLEs and thus might advance this valuable learning technology. © 2025 The Author(s)
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